The role of the line manager in managing under

According to Swamson, 2009, human resources are the most precious factor of production that an organization has; to benefit from their intellectualism, an organization need to manage them effectively.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on The role of the line manager in managing under-performance specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Human resources department has the role of ensuring the right number of staffs in terms of quality, quantity, and experience are maintained within an organization. to conduct their role effectively, personnel managers need the support of the entire workforce particularly those in management positions. Line managers have the role of heading revenue-generating departments and are responsible for achieving an organization’s main goals; to effectively undertake this task; they need to manage their human capital effectively. When managing their immediate subordinates, line managers play a cr ucial role in enhancing performance among the staffs; they act as team leaders, mentors, coaches, and team players (Armstrong, 2006). This paper discusses the role played by line managers to manage under-performance among staffs. Human resources performance management Performance management within an organization refers to activities undertaken by an organization to facilitate the attainment of their corporate goals and objectives in an effective and efficient manner. The focus of effective performance management is to improve an entire organizations performance; it may focus on a certain area, department, employee, or even the processes to build a product or service with the sole aim of ensuring that efficiency has been attained in an organization. The concept of performance management was coined by Dr. Aubrey Daniels in the late 1970s where he looked at an organization from a scientific angle; he suggested that there is need to focus on total improvement of the organization for bo th behavior and results.Advertising Looking for report on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Human resources need to be managed effectively to facilitate the improvement of efficiency in the organization; the rate of performance as well as the processes they are using to attain high results need to be vetted to improve them accordingly. Performance management aims at attaining three main corporate objectives as facilitating financial gain of an organization, enhancing and growing motivation in the workplace, and improving management control. Performance can be seen as the difference between actual results verses desired results; it is always the desire of a company to record high actual results than the desired results/budgeted result. Performance management is a continuous process that entails not just evaluation of the rate of performance of an organization but enacting such measures that enhance the improv ement of processes within the firm. Other than focusing on human capital, performance management aims at improving structures, infrastructures, and physical components of an organization; it involves partnering of teams of workers for future improvement. To improve future processes and results, there is always the need to measure, gauge and analyze past and present performance of an organization (Bandt and Haines, 2002). Performance management can be analyzed into four main stages as: performance standards At this stage the management has the role of setting goals and objectives to be attained with a specified period of time considering the available factors of production.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on The role of the line manager in managing under-performance specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More When setting the standards of the company, the management has to be very genuine on how it will evaluate the outcome of the organization; this calls for vetting the resources available and making the right combination of available assets. The standards can only be attained if processes are improved and people skills enhanced to facilitate high performance. Performance indicators should also be placed and indentified as they assist keeping the company accountable of its current performance (Beardwell and Claydon, 2010) Performance Measurement With set standards and expectations, leaders should develop performance measurement indicators, the measures enacted include gap-analysis (gap analysis involves considering the difference between the set standards and the actual standards attained), outcomes of data systems, and statistical responses. Reporting of progress After comparing the outcomes of a performance management process, the next most crucial aspect is to make regular reports to analyze the progress of the process. There are times that the process may give mixed reports likely to suggest th at the business is not keeping pace of the standards expected; in such an event the management have the role of enacting remedies to the process. quality improvement process With the standards set and the right pathway determined, the next most crucial exercise that managers should do is to document the determined right path of operation. It is through the documentation that changes can be effected within processes and human resources training and learning exercises are set. Advertising Looking for report on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Line managers Line managers are mandated with the role of managing micro-teams within an organization that accomplish a particular exercise in an organization. In current management strategy, tasks are divided among different task forces that are mandated with the role of giving a certain output to the organization. For example a manufacturing company may have the following departments, manufacturing, processing, human resources, supplies, procurement, sales, marketing, finances among others; the above departments may be lead by departmental heads assisted by line managers. In small organizations, departmental heads can double up as line managers. Line managers have the role of improving their employee’s performance through their actions and leadership skills (John, 2004). The role played by line managers to manage under-performance among staffs The role of line managers in managing underperformance among staffs is facilitated by their leadership skills; in the event they hav e effective management skills, they are likely to improve their staffs skills and expertise. They manage underperformance through: team spirit enactment and reinforcement Line managers are team leaders of the sections they head; they have the role of ensuring that their team is effectively managed. Effectively managed teams have the capability of enhancing the growth of strong team spirit that leads to efficiency, innovation, invention, and creativity within teams. there are different management practices that line managers should enact to facilitate the growth of team spirit, they include enacting effective communication systems where team leaders and members can discusses issues freely, creating a favorable working environment, and acting as the linkage between subordinates and top management. Management experts have suggested that one of the most causes of underperformance or poor performance among staffs comes from lack of team spirit and ineffective teams. When teams are weak , opportunities are lost and businesses exposed to risks. The understanding of this major role of creating a favorable working environment is the parting-point that line managers need to understand and take effective measures as a result. Orchestrate teams are created when line managers have effective teams management strategies thus issues affecting his team are addressed effectively to avoid chances of failure; orchestrate teams are highly productive. line managers and talent management Under performance within an organization can be managed if human capital talents and intellectual capabilities have been managed effectively. At the level of line management, managers at this level need to understand how to handle their employees to facilitate the growth of their talents and intellectualism. Line managers should take their time and understand the strengths and weak points of their team members and enact such policies that combine strengths and weaknesses optimally for high result s. One area that results to low human resources performance is when their talents, skills, and strengths fail to be matched with the kind of job in their company; they tend to become bored and unsettled. When tapping human capital talents, line managers should have the skills, professionalism, and right attitude to build a winning team. An organization made of well managed talents has a competitive advantage over its competitors as this is an asset that is limited to individuals. Other than managing talents, line managers should have the capability of combining their human capital effectively; the combination should be able to take advantage of human capital strengths and mitigate against any human resources risks. Morale and attitude of employees is determined by the kind of relationship the company develops with its employees. When morale and attitude is low, it follows that the employee’s production is low and inefficient. When managing a large team, line managers should h ave the team further divided into smaller micro teams on a certain basis, this helps in dealing with matters from a micro-angle which is likely to bring better and more satisfying results to the company. involving employees in decision making Decisions are the driving force of an organization, organizations that have effective, quality, and timely decisions have strong competitive strength. In contemporary management systems, management gurus are emphasizing the need to make decision via scientific decision making process; scientific decision making process requires that management involve their subordinates when making business decisions. The inputs of subordinates are considered crucial as they might have some insight information either derived from experience, education or their intellectualism. When human resources are engaged when making decisions, they develop ownership to the decision and work hard to ensure that it has been attained. By itself, engaging human capital when making decisions results to highly motivated staffs that are willing to work an extra mile for the benefit of the company. In the event of failure, the human resources are willing to learn from the past activity; they take it as if it is them who wronged thus they are willing to take up the entire blame. Since line manager is the person on the ground or who is close to the subordinates, he should be the first element to involve his human capital in decision making. He should learn how to guide the subordinates in giving their views, how to disregard that information that is not essential, and how to differentiate quality input by employees without hurting either. With such a policy, the human capital become motivates and willing to give their input to the organization. Looking at involvement from another angle, when subordinates are involved when making business decisions, and the decision give rise to better working condition and improved performance, they become motivated and will ing to learn. the satisfaction that subordinates derive from the knowledge that their input has given positive results is enough motivation to assist them work harder and improve their performance in terms of efficiency and loyalty. With this in mind, line managers have the responsibility of ensuring they have structures that involve subordinates in decision making and communicating the results of the decisions with time. Any challenge that comes along should be discussed and solution sort for the same. as a manager, line managers should be given some float to assist them arrange some social activities like team building with the aim of thanking subordinates and involving them when forging the way forward for the organization (Swanson, 2002). enhance learning and training in the organization at micro-level Business processes are changing fast, for competitiveness and high competition, organizations need to have employees who are dedicated, experienced, and well versed with the cha nges in their industry. Line managers’ act as coaches, trainers, and mentors in their departments; the extended role of line managers means they need to be knowledgeable of what changes are taking place in their industry as well as how to handle the situation. When training, mentorship, and coaching is well embraced, leaders learn the weak areas of their subordinates and make such efforts that will assist them improve in the said area. Line managers have the role of establishing the training needs in an employees and enacting such measures that enhance training by the subordinates; by so doing the line manager is assisting human resources and top managers enhance performance and productivity in the company. training can be done by internal parties who are experienced in a certain area or can involve third parties like experts, gurus, and professionals in particular areas of interest. line managers in recruitments, promotions, demotions, and performance appraisals When makin g decision on the employee to deploy, human resources managers should consult line managers who advise them on the right candidate to deploy in terms of education, experience, age and gender. It is through recruitment that an organization is able to get the right caliber of employees who can handle the business situation of the company effectively. In the event that line managers fail to offer such quality advice, they are likely to mislead the company and get employees who are inefficient, inexperienced and who have little input to give to the company (Pause, 2009). When the right candidates have been selected for a particular position, line managers have the role of orienting them to the company systems and organizational culture. With the move to include them in organizational culture, the companies need to have a positive culture that will enhance production. Positive organizational culture involves having structures that facilitate the development of favorable working condition s and informed decision making procedures. After recruitments, line managers should be actively be involved when appraising employees, the appraisal model should be a balance score board system as it assists the management know the exact strength of its human capital and make decisions on the kind of interventions they can make to facilitate an orchestrate team. When appraising line managers should give their recommendations on what they think is fit for the company and the employees at large. the appraisal method adopted by a particular company can break employees or build them, in the event they are appraised by a person they are sure understands their issues, they are likely to give some personal business related information that can be of much benefit when making decisions. Sometimes differences occur between the appraisal gotten by an employee and what the employee think its right for him or her, in such cases, the employer has the right to determine the right approach not to d iscourage or de-motivate the employee. In most cases, appraisal comes with an appreciation or an acknowledgement to the staff; the right performance appraisal is thus important as it will assist the company give the right appreciation to the right person for the good of the company. Line managers play a direct role when choosing the kind of employees that have to be deployed in their organization; they need to advice the management on the right candidate and enact such policies that will see them get the employees on board. The growth of a candidate in an organization is determined by line managers thus they need to be fair and just to their subordinates. When the right employees have been deployed, chances of under-performance will be reduced; there will be structures that will enhance staff skills development for the benefit of the company. Management gurus have suggested that one of the best methods to ensure high productivity in an organization is to have the right number and qu ality of employees at all sections (McGoldrick, Stewart and Watson, 2001). line managers and fulfillment of psychological contracts One area that many organizations have ignored is the appreciation that they have engaged in some psychological contracts with their employees; they are affected by the psychological and emotional well-beings of their human capital. Human beings have different attitude, potential, emotional intelligence, and perceptions; the differences need to be professionally managed as it affects the performance of employees. effective line managers ensures that the psychological contracts of their employees have been fulfilled; in the book, â€Å"Organizational Behavior† by, MeShane, Olekalns, and Travaglione, the writers are of the observation that for a highly motivated staff, managers should look into their psychological, emotional, and intellectual well-being; this looks into the social aspects of employees and assists keeping them at peace with the sys tem. The advantage that line managers have is that human behavior can be predicted as well as molded; the most important thing is to know the right intervention to make to facilitate positive behavior reinforcements. line managers assisted by policies enacted by human resources management should enact policies that will facilitate the growth of positive behavior in their organization; the right method create an environment that enables a favorable working condition where employees feel their emotional and psychological needs are respected (Legge, 2004). In managers in top management decision making and advising their subordinates When making corporate goals and decisions, line managers have the role of participating in the decision making and making sure that the right decisions have been made. When in top management meetings, line managers should understand that they are representing a certain section so any decision that is likely to affect the section negatively should not be mad e. In this case, the line manager should understand that he is a link between the top management and subordinates staffs thus should keep a top gear approach which looks into issues from all sides. Underperformance may result from decisions that are not attainable; this means that it might be optimism on the part of the management as they might not understand what is actually happening on the ground. Line managers should be up to the challenge where they advise on the attainable targets as well as advice on what should be done to make the attainment of the goals even easier. For instance they might recommend the adoption of a particular technology, buying of machinery or any other business action that will facilitate the attainment of corporate goals and objective. It adds no value for line managers sit in top management positions without offering insight details that can assist in making the right attainable targets for their team. Despite this, the attainment should be justified a nd one that will ensure that the talents, capabilities, and skills in the team have been utilized effectively (MeShane, Olekalns and Travaglione, 2020). Conclusion Line managers have the role of managing micro-teams within an organization; they are team leaders mandated with the task of enacting policies that fit their organization model. The role of line managers in managing underperformance among staffs is facilitated by their leadership skills; in the event they have effective management skills, they are likely to improve their staffs skills and expertise. To manage underperformance line managers should work with top management and subordinates to determine their organizations strengths and weakness. With an understanding of their organizations strengths and weaknesses, line managers should actively be involved in decision making to ensure their team’s interests has been considered. Some of the management practices that the managers need to take include talent management, skills development, psychological contracts fulfillment, and performance appraisals. References Armstrong, M., 2006. A Handbook of Human Resource Management Practice. New York: Kogan Page. Bandt, A. and Haines, S., 2002. Successful Strategic Human Resource Planning. San-Diego: Systems Thinking Press. Beardwell, J. and Claydon, T. ,2010. Human Resource Management A Contemporary Approach.New Jersey: Prentice Hall. John, B.P., 2004. Organizational Behavior, from theory to Practice. New York: Wiley. Legge, K., 2004. Human Resource Management: Rhetorics and Realities (Anniversary ed.). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. McGoldrick, J., Stewart J., Watson, S.,2001. Theorizing Human Resource Development. Human Resource Development International, 4(3), 287-290 MeShane, S. Olekalns, M. and Travaglione, T., 2020. Organisational Behaviour on the Pacific Rim Focus. Sydney: McGraw Hill Irwin. Paauwe, J., 2009. HRM and Performance: Achievement, Methodological Issues and Prospects. Journal of Manag ement Studies, 46 (1), 123 Swanson, R. A., 2002. Human resource development and its underlying theory. Human Resource Development International, 4(3) 287-290. This report on The role of the line manager in managing under-performance was written and submitted by user Moises R. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

American Oligarchy essays

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Dopamine Neuron Characteristics

Dopamine Neuron Characteristics Said Mohammed Al Hakmani The question of this assignment Discuss the characteristics of a dopamine neuron and how does this relate to what has been achieved in the culture dish. Introduction In our body a lot of organs that make our function of movement and control. Parkinson’s disease affect our move. It happen when there is a problem of the certain of nervous cells in the brain. The nerve cells make an important chemical is named dopamine. The dopamine sends signals to the part of the brain that controls movement. Also, the dopamine lets the move of our muscle smoothly. The Parkinson’s disease breakdown the nerve cells that make the dopamine. When the person do not have enough dopamine the problem of move can start and the person cannot control the way where to move. (1) Figure 1 shows the nerve cells in the brain (1) The Parkinson’s disease is progressive, which means it gets worse over time. But this happen slowly many years. Until now no one know what acutely makes the nerve cells breakdown. However, scientists are doing a lot of research to know the reason of the cells breakdown. Some study say Parkinson disease is gene abnormal in some people but so far there is enough proof to show that its always inherited.(1)Braak’s hypothesis proposes that the Parkinson’s disease begins in the digestive tract and in the brain’s centre of smell. The theory is supported by the fact that symptoms associated with digestion and smell happen very early on the disease. Professor Jia- Yi Lis research team has now been able to tack this process further, from the gut to the brain in rat models. The experiment shows how the toxic protein alpha-synculein is transfer from one cell to another before reaching the brain’s movement centre, giving increase to the characteristic of movemen t in the Parkinson’s disease. He prove that disease process actually can travel from the peripheral nervous system to the central nervous system, in this case from the wall of the gut to the brain.(3) Usually people start to have symptoms of Parkinson’s disease between the ages of 50 and 60. But in certain case start earlier. The symptoms of Parkinson’s disease first may be notice is tremor which means shaking or trembling. And these may affect the hands, arms, or legs. It is one of the most common signs but not everyone has it. Also, not everyone with a tremor has Parkinson’s disease. The tremor often starts only one side of the body or just one arm or leg. In addition, Parkinson’s affects the stiff muscles all through the body, so it causes problems like trouble swallowing or constipation. In the later stages of Parkinson’s disease a person may have fixed expression trouble speaking and other problems. Some people lose mental skills. (1) A dopamine Dopamine is a chemical signal that transfers information from one neuron and the next neuron. It released the signals from the first neuron and it floats into the synapse (the space between the two neurons) to the second neuron. The receptors bumps the signals down to the receiving neurons. The dopamine interested in many different important pathways and it known as the mesolimbic pathways which starts with cells in the ventral tegmental area in the midbrain.(2) The dopamine plays numbers of roles in human and other animals. It controls many functions such as movement, memory, pleasurable reward, attention, sleep, learning, mood, inhibition of prolactin production, and behaviour. The increase and deficiency of this dopamine chemical is cause of several disease like Parkinson’ disease. In the brain, part called the basal ganglia regulates movement. Basal ganglia in turn depend on a certain amount of dopamine to function. The action of this occurs by dopamine receptors D 1-5. Th e deficiency in dopamine in the brain may become delayed and uncoordinated the movement and other function of the body. (3) The dopamine is important neurotransmitter in the brain substantial part of the overall dopamine in the body is produced outside the brain by mesenteric organs. The production of dopamine within the central nervous system, depend on the dopamine biosynthesis. There are two steps of dopamine biosynthesis takes place in the cytosol of CAergic neurons and starts with hydroxylase of L-tyrosine at the phenol ring by tyrosine hydroxylase to produce DOPA.(4) Stem cell The stem cell have potential to develop into many different cell types in the body during early life and growth. In many tissues they serve as a sort of internal repair system, divided without limit to replace other cells as long as the person or animal is still alive. When a stem cell divides, each new cell has the ability either to remain a stem cell or become another type of cell with a more specialized function, such as a muscle cell, a red blood cell, or a brain cell and other cells.(5) The stem cells are featured from other cell types by two important characteristics. First, they are capable of renewing themselves through cell division, sometimes after long periods of inactivity. Second, under some physiologic or experimental conditions, stem cell can be become tissue- or organ-specific cells with special functions. In certain organs, such as the gut and bone marrow, they regularly divide to repair and replace worn out or damaged tissues. In addition, in other organs, such as the pancreas and the heart, stem cells only divide under special conditions. (5) Scientists primarily worked with two types of stem cells from animals and humans: embryonic stem cells and non-embryonic somatic or adult stem cells. In 1981 Scientists discovered ways to derive embryonic stem cells from early mouse embryos nearly 30 years ago. In 1998 the detailed study of the biology of mouse stem cells led to the discovery. After that method to derive stem cells from human embryos and grow the cells in the laboratory. These cells are called human embryonic stem cells. The embryos used to studies were created for reproductive purposes through in vitro fertilization procedures. When they were no longer needed for that purpose, they were donated for research with the informed consent of the donor. Researchers made another breakthrough by identifying conditions that would allow some specialized adult cells to be reprogrammed† to assume a stem cell-like state in 2006. This new kind of stem cell, called induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs). (5) The Stem cells are important for living organisms for different reasons. In the three to five days old embryo, called a blastocyst, the inner cells give rise to the en tire body of the organism, include all of the many specialized cell types and organs such as the, lungs, heart, skin and other tissues. In certain adult tissues, such as bone marrow, brain, and muscle, the adult stem cells generate replacements for cells that are lost through normal injury, or disease. The stem cells make new potentials for treating diseases such as heart disease and Parkinson disease. However, much work remains to be done in the laboratory to understand how to use these cells therapies to treat disease.(5) Research on stem cells continues to advance about how an organism develops from a single cell and how healthy cells replace damaged cells in adult organisms. The stem cell research is one of the fascinating areas in contemporary biology.(5) The laboratory of human embryonic stem cell The protocol of the laboratory that culture the stem cells must contain special equipment use to avoiding the contamination during make the HESC culture. The equipment that are use a CO2 incubator, that cannot use the detergent to clean use 70% of ethanol to get the best result to control the contamination. Used a biocontainment hood to control of microorganisms. A microscope with phase contrast optics to see the cell and colony morphology. A refrigerator 20Ć¹ and freezers 80Ć¹.Use the liquid nitrogen freezer to store the stocks of HESC and feeders. Also, need small water bath 37 Ć¹ to thawing the cell that are frozen.(6) Feeder culture The feeder culture use to growth of HESC. It prepare primary fibroblast that come from the CF-1 mice. The CF-1 mouse embryonic fibroblasts give the optimal growth of HESC without differentiation and recommended for many reason such as function well making feeder, available and cheaper. (6) The methods culture HESC The first thing need to culture the HESC is good feeder. Human embryonic stem cell should be passaged when the colonies reach size 300 to 500 cells. The plate should be passaged large culture of colonies. The cell always passaged to the plate of feeder cell less than seven days. (6) The materials that required for passaging Human embryonic stem cell are ESC medium, 15 ml centrifuge tubes, calcium/magnesium free PBS, collagenase type IV, cell scraper ,10 cm plates and 0.1% gelatin.(6) The procedure: Table show the methods of passaging HESC adopted steps only but I create the table (6) Growth of the HESC To growth the human embryonic stem cell transfer cell from preimplantation stage embryo to the culture dish. The cell will grow on the culture dish and will spread and divided on the surface of the media. The culture dish contain the mouse embryonic cell which provide the nutrients into the culture media to growth the cell. However, researcher now devised to grow the embryonic stem cells without mouse feeder cells to avoid the risk viruses that can transfer from the media to the human. (5) The test use to identify embryonic stem cells in the laboratory. There is no standard test approved yet to the scientists who study human embryonic stem cells. However, the laboratories that grow the human embryonic stem cells use different types of test such as: Growing and subculture of the stem cell for many months to make sure the health of the cell. Use techniques to determine the presence of transcription factors that produced by undifferentiated cells. These are two important transcription factors Nanog and Oct-4. The both factors help the genes to turn on and off to make maintain the stem cell to undifferentiated and self-renewal.(5) The GMP There are many challenges to use the stem cells for replacement therapy. However, the good manufacturing practice (GMP) is quality assurance system that use to make sure the product of stem cells is good and safe to use for treatment. The GMP in human embryonic stem cell culture required several components for good clinical practice. First, the culture or the feeder media that use in the laboratory must be reach to standard of GMP. Second, the inner cell mass of the blastocyst and passaging of the cell. Final, all components of the culture and cryopreservation media should validated to the GMP system. (7) The ethical issue surrounding the use of embryonic cell need be carefully controlled. In UK human embryonic stem cell can collected from left over embryos produced as part of vitro fertilisation. This can done under strict UK guidelines from Human Fertilisation Embryology Authority and only in the early stage embryos can be use in research up to maximum of 14 day of development.(8) The power of stem cell In 1980, the researcher take stem cell inside the developing embryos and growth in the laboratory to make the human embryonic stem cell. However, the adult stem cell are extremely powerful and easier for researcher to make embryonic stem cell and can converted into any type of cell in the body. But there is risk that the stem cell may grow uncontrolled in the body which cause to formation of tumour.(8) Scientist in Japan worked to make stem cell from normal adult cell in 2006 and this called induced pluripotent stem cell (iPS). This iPS cell in the future may use to make for the patient own cell and it be safe from other factor the affect the patient. The researcher attempted to treat the cell that are die from the nervous cell by make experiment on rat and mice. It show improvement to develop of dopamine that make replace of nervous cell. The researcher can measure the increase of dopamine neuron function in striatum of the patient by using positron emission tomography that make image of the brain.(5) Many researchers believe that embryonic stem cell could be excellent source of dopamine neurons because can grow in culture dish and make into any type of cell after long time in culture. Now, the dopamine neurons have been generated from the Human embryonic stem cell. One study research use the special type of companion cell with specific growth factors to promote the differentiation of the embryonic stem cell through several stages into dopamine (5) References Webmd.com, (2014). Parkinsons Disease Center: Symptoms, Treatments, Causes, Tests, Diagnosis, and Prognosis. [online] Available at: http://www.webmd.com/parkinsons-disease [Accessed 15 Nov. 2014]. Slate Magazine, (2014). Slate Magazine Politics, Business, Technology, and the Arts. [online] Available at: http://www.slate.com [Accessed 16 Nov. 2014]. News-Medical.net, (2014). Health News and Information News Medical. [online] Available at: http://www.news-medical.net [Accessed 16 Nov. 2014]. Meiser, J., Weindl, D. and Hiller, K. (2013). Complexity of dopamine metabolism. Cell Commun Signal, 11(1), p.34. Stemcells.nih.gov, (2014). NIH Stem Cell Information Home Page. [online] Available at: http://stemcells.nih.gov [Accessed 16 Nov. 2014]. Stemcell.umn.edu, (2014). Home MED Stem Cell Institute, University of Minnesota. [online] Available at: http://www.stemcell.umn.edu [Accessed 20 Nov. 2014]. Unger, C., Skottman, H., Blomberg, P., Sirac Dilber, M. and Hovatta, O. (2008). Good manufacturing practice and clinical-grade human embryonic stem cell lines. Human Molecular Genetics, 17(R1), pp.R48-R53. Stem cells the story so far. (2014). progress the research magazine of Parkinsons UK, (15 summer).

Philosophical Perspectives on Music Education Essay

Music is one subject that is very rarely given attention in the academe. The most controversial issue that is attached to this is whether or not music should be taught in schools, or why music should be taught, for that matter. Contrary to what most people believe, music education is an imperative part of student growth (Davidson, 1932). This issue has resulted to the perceived need to change public opinion. Several â€Å"music advocacies† which come in many forms were established, seeking to change this mindset that people have about music education. Most music advocacies are based on legitimate findings and scientific arguments, although many others rely on unconvincing and rather controversial data. It should be noted that students should be exposed to music so that they are able to communicate and understand their own feelings (Zbikowski, 2002). Arts, whether it be visual or audio allows us to have an insight to our emotional self and cultivates the growth of intrapersonal and interpersonal intelligence. In colleges, music education is usually one of the densest subjects. Although some schools and organizations encourage incorporation of arts in classes, such as music with other subjects such as Math, Science, or English, people still fail to see the importance of arts in the academics (Zbikowski, 2002). For many people, academic subjects should go beyond what is best for the students to learn. It should also incorporate things that will help students cultivate the need to learn. Music has taken the biggest cut on the academe—it has not been given importance as it should be. In this paper, the philosophical perspectives of three authors will explain why music is among the most important subjects that should be taught in schools and why there is a need to do so. Charles Fowler Charles Fowler believes that through artistic representations such as music, people are able to share, at some point, a common humanity. In the same manner, life would be meaningless without shared expressions which make people understand one another. He also very firmly believes that Science is not the only conveyor of what we may consider true. Science may be able to explain how flowers bloom or how humans are conceived, but it fails to convey its emotive meaning and impact, as the Arts does. He emphasizes that both are important, and that both should be given importance (Fowler, 1996). He considers Arts such as music as an act of intelligence and should be treated no less compared to other subjects as it is a form of thought that is every bit as important as science and mathematics when it comes to what these subjects convey. Inasmuch as the pyramids of Egypt, the Statue of Liberty, and the Hanging Garden of Babylon can be mathematically or scientifically explained as to how they were built, a musical piece can also show people many other evenly important aspects of its existence. Arts allow us to create our own representation to concepts, ideas and feelings as perceived by people. In the same manner, music was created for us to be able to react to the world in the form of music, to record our impressions and to analyze things and share them with other people. Like science and mathematics, music needs to be studied before being fully understood (Fowler, 1996). Because today’s schools are understood to be concerned as they should be to teaching literacy, it should be noted that literacy also includes understanding of music. This is because music allows us to fully express, represent, and communicate the full scale of human life, which is a pre-requisite to understanding the real essence of language, mathematics, science, economics, philosophy, and the list could go on and on. If one is asked, â€Å"What constitutes a good education? † one is expected to hear an answer which would mention about a full knowledge about Sciences and Math. True enough, this is very critical in a person’s life if he aims to have a place in the work force. Very few would also argue with that. However, this idea should not and never make us overlook how important music is and what it can do for the mind and spirit of people (Fowler, 1996). Fowler believes that school administrators, teachers, professors and educators should be reminded that one obligation that a school has for their students is to inspire them, in whatever way, and ignite their minds for them to be better individuals. Music often ignites that goal and serves as the fuel. It is one way to apply one’s imaginations, thoughts and feelings. In relation to the reform movement of America which focuses on improving the quality of education by inspiring them, introducing self discipline, discovering the joys of learning, the uniqueness of one’s being, the possibilities and wonders of life and the achievement and satisfaction, Fowler believes that arts can be used to attain these goals (Henry, 1958). He also emphasizes that the world does not need better and more arts education simply because the world needs more artists. He believes that there are far better reasons for schools to provide a healthy and in-depth education in Arts. Quite simply, this is one way people communicate with each other, although not generally verbally, but emotionally. Music is the language of the world which helps people express fear, anger, anxiety, curiosity, hunger, hopes, dreams and so on. Music is the universal language by which the world is able to express itself to its constituents; the world speaks through music. Music is not just important—Fowler believes that it is a center force of human existence. Arts in school should never be isolated from any other subjects in the academe. It should be included in the framework of general education and should be part of the curriculum of all American schools, or all schools in the world for that matter. Arts should at all times be related to general education because it is essential in establishing a strong curriculum. Every person should then be given the opportunity to learn as much as they can about arts (Fowler, 1996). Charles Leonhard  Leonhard believes that although it is an easy task for educators to make their students love music, they should still consider finding ways to make music education more effective and enjoyable. He discussed that there is a raising concern for higher standards of music education. For instance, students nowadays are more informed about music, which is why educators should also adapt to this by teaching higher standards of musical literature and musical performances, and using better musical instruments that will best fit the taste of students and will thus inspire them to learn more about music. By doing so, he stresses out that school administrators all over the world will be inspired to make music education as an equal part of the general education (Elliot, 1995). He was also concerned about music being part of everyone’s lives. As the motto of music educators has for years been â€Å"Music for every child and every child for music†, this applies that every child and youth should be taught to love music, regardless the degree of understanding or talent in music they have. Just as this is important, he also believes that the music teaching should be on the same footing to that of the regular academic subjects and should be made functional, instead of treating it like a fad. Leonhard feels that now is the time to firmly establish music in the school curriculum, to gain increased acceptance of the idea that music should be an essential part of general education for everyone. Achievement of this ambition requires an expanded range of communication between music educators and all other educators, plus the interested public. It is only by a wider sharing of ideas that changes can occur. To achieve this, a very sensible approach has been used. This approach is placing ideas about the values of music education in a broader context of ideas about education in general and of building relationships between the intellectual resources of music educators. This is surely advisable, even necessary. Nevertheless there are difficulties in this kind of operation. Estelle Jorgensen Estelle Jorgensen contested many philosophers who treated music as a â€Å"difficulty†, and who considered music not to be part of the general education. Jorgensen sees the importance of having people be aware of the need to understand, appreciate and use music for one to apply it in his or her everyday life. The arts then have a potential contribution to the general education, as it has in general life. While school subjects often included music, arts were not always present. She believes that most people fail to see the importance of arts in the reality of life, and what difference it does to the world. For instance, love in itself is art; the human body is an art; everything around us is an art, yet many fails to understand and realize this fact. In American schools where there is willingness on the part of the authorities to accord a reasonable amount of time to music, she believes that work in appreciation is sometimes undertaken. But to accomplish anything systematic and lasting, teachers would have to be content to attack the problem in a less spectacular manner than commonly maintains in our schools. In view of the experience which precedes this work, the study of music appreciation in the high school should begin at the beginning and be satisfied to cover comparatively little ground. There are, moreover, three requisites without which any course of this kind would be practically worthless. First, the teacher must be a reasonably well-educated musician, possessing knowledge of the subject far more extensive than that required by his immediate work, and an acquaintance with other branches of education such as would enable him to draw parallels between music and other fields of learning. He should have, too, a highly cultivated taste, and a faith in the capacity of youth to perceive and enjoy beauty without the aid of sugar-coated musical palliatives or sensational devices which are calculated to enhance interest, but which, in reality, distract attention from the music itself. And last, the illustrations should offer as nearly as possible a true presentation of the work under discussion. She believes that music should be thought in an ideal way for it to be appreciated (Rogers, 1998). Conclusion Like other subjects in the curriculum of American schools, the arts provide an opportunity for children to realize certain talents and potentials. Particularly in their creative modes, the arts ask students to reach inside themselves to explore their own fascinations and perceptions and to give them suitable and precise representation. In the process of translating their inner discernments and revelations into a symbolic form, children discover and develop their capabilities and uncover some of their human possibilities. Because they are so personal in what they require of each would-be artist, the arts can disclose important insights and impart crucial–and practical-habits of thought that are generally not taught as well through other subjects (Swanwick, 1996). Among the three philosophers, Charles Fowler had much to say about Arts being an essential part of a school’s curriculum. It is precisely because the creative act flows from the inside out rather than the outside in that it helps youngsters discover their own resources, develop their own attributes, and realize their own personal potential. Education generally does not do this. That is, usually students are told, â€Å"Here is the way the world is,† rather than asked, â€Å"What do you think the world is or might be? † Through the process of refining their own personal visions, students discover and develop their own intellectual resources. Because the arts ask students to determine their own abilities, they are self motivating. They propel and stimulate, fascinate and captivate because they engage students personally with their true inner selves, not some concept of self imposed from outside. All human beings want to know what they can do. By having to draw on their own ideas, students discover and explore their own cognitive capacities (Swanwick, 1988). All three authors, Fowler, Leonhard and Jorgensen had similar views on music education. The three agreed that music should be treated as a vital part of student education. Just who is responsible for educating the next generation in the arts –the schools, other agencies, or a combination of both? Each community is responsible for providing opportunities to its youth to ensure that they will be adequately educated in the arts. How those responsibilities are carried out differs from one community to the next. In those communities with few cultural resources, the schools must assume the primary responsibility. In urban and suburban communities that have access to museums, arts centers, and living artists of all kinds, the responsibility can and should be shared between the schools and the community.

Faculty attitudes towards students with disabilities Essay

There have been an increasing number of disabled students who are moving from high school to post-secondary education over the last few decades. The enactment of the several laws addressing the education of students with disabilities such as the Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA) of 1990 and American with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990 instigated the rise in disabled students in higher education (Rao, 2004).   The IDEA recognizes postsecondary education as one of the aspects in which the education system should strive to achieve. This means that even the disabled persons have a right to receive postsecondary education. On the other hand, the ADA requires that students with disabilities be given access to postsecondary education just as any other member of the society. Inclusion of the Section 504 of the 1973 Rehabilitation Act is also an emphasis on the right for the disabled to access higher education (Riddell, Tinklin & Wilson, 2005). Students with disability increased in institutions of higher education since the above Acts created favorable conditions characterized by equity in accessing education. According to Eckes and Ochoa (2005) there was an increase in disabled freshmen by more than ten percent as from 1991 to 1996. A significant growth in the number of disabled students accessing post-secondary education is also noted by Rao (2004). Rao (2004) indicates that there was a 16 percent increase in the number of disabled persons who had received at least college education as from 1986 to 1994. In 1996 alone, approximately six percent of the undergraduate population was composed of persons with disabilities. Increase in college enrollment for disabled persons has been recorded in virtually all forms of disabilities. Mull, Sitlington and Alper (2001) for instance report that as from 1976, there has been a tenfold increase in the number of persons with learning disabilities reporting to college. This is also reported as the fastest growing category of disabled college freshmen. In 1996 for instance, learning disabilities constituted 29 to 35 percent of all disabilities recorded in disabled persons enrolling into colleges. Eckes and Ochoa (2005) highlight some of the disabilities that were recorded amongst freshmen in 1994. These include health impairments, impairments in seeing and hearing as well as learning disabilities. Despite the fact that there has been an increase in enrollment of disabled students in college, there has also been a concern about a good majority of these encountering difficulties in completing higher education. This is especially in comparison with students who do not have disabilities. According to Mull, Sitlington and Alper (2001), the number of students with disabilities who attain their target degree is always lower compared to students without disabilities. It is also notable that a greater number of disabled students versus students without disabilities spend more time in the postsecondary program. In one study, Mull, Sitlington and Alper (2001) report that while 80 percent of learning disability students spent more than five years to graduate from postsecondary institutions, only 56 percent of those without disabilities spent such a time. These statistics indicate problems with outcome of higher education among students with disabilities. The experiences of disabled students in higher learning institutions therefore become worth exploring since they are key to effective learning and desirable outcomes. Disability defined When addressing the attitudes of faculty towards students with disabilities, it is worth considering and understanding the various disabilities encountered. A definition of disability is therefore an important understanding in this field since it helps in comprehending some of the attitudes that may be encountered in faculties. It is recognized that disability can be defined from a medical and social perspective or the International Classification of Functioning as per the World Health Organization (Mitra, 2006). In this paper, the medical aspect of disability is considered with physical and mental disabilities taking preeminence. According to Mitra (2006) disability as per the medical model entails an individual having a problem resulting from any health condition (e.g. disease or injury). The disabling health condition is considered as unwanted since it places the individual into â€Å"sick† position which requires medical care. The medical model of disability emphasizes of the inability of the disabled person to function â€Å"normally†. As such, rehabilitative efforts are mounted to ensure that the disabled person functions as close to normal as possible. For instance, a physically disabled individual may be depending on a wheelchair to move. According to World Health Organization (2007), disability is defined under the International Classification of Functioning (ICF). The ICF recognizes that some health conditions lead to impairments more so in the functioning of the body. As such, the individual gets limited or restricted to participate in certain activities such as work and education. Lack of access to education for persons with impairments for instance may be considered as a hindered participation according to ICF. The International Classification of Functioning incorporates social and medical aspects of disability. In addition to identifying medical conditions as causes of impairment, the model also recognizes that the impairment limit an individual’s participation in certain activities, thus bringing in a social inequality (Woodcock, 2009). The restricted participation is considered as a contextual aspect whereby some factors such as personal background, law and the attitudes of the community may determine the limitation to participate. As such, a disabled person may be limited in terms of participating in education or accessing other social services. This is the reason why Mitra (2006) argues that disabled persons face certain disadvantages similar to those encountered by oppressed minority groups. Among the experienced inequalities is school segregation. One may be born with certain disabilities whereas others are acquired during day-to-day life for instance due to traumatizing event. Some of the disabilities that students who get enrolled to postsecondary learning institutions have include impaired sight, impaired hearing, impaired speech, impaired health and learning disabilities as the most common impairment. The above impairments are considered as serious and common disabilities compared to mild forms of disabilities which are less common amongst students. Learning disabilities constitute a myriad of disabilities such as dyscalculia i.e. problems with resolving mathematical computations, dysgraphia i.e. writing difficulties, aphasia i.e. language use problems and dyslexia problem whereby the student experiences problems in reading (Walker & Heffne, 2006). Important to note is that the learning disabilities may be a bit difficult for college tutors and professors to identify in students as opposed to physical disabilities such as a student using a wheelchair. Disabilities such as Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder or dyslexia are particularly difficult to detect. Overview of Americans with Disability Act involving higher education Disabled persons are part of the society and as much as they are grouped as part of the minority, they are also diversity in the society (Bryan, 2010). Being part of a minority in the American society, they are faced with the potential to be segregated. In response to the need to protect the disabled Americans from discrimination and segregation in terms of access to social amenities, the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) was enacted in 1970. This is a law that has specifically addressed the persons with special needs and the special education has been clearly addressed more so in regard to institutions of higher education discriminating against disabled students. Students with disabilities have been advocated for in the ADA in terms of their access to higher education. The Americans with Disabilities Act was enacted in July 1990 to provide for the access of postsecondary education for students with disabilities (Bryan, 2010). There are several provisions in the ADA including instructions on accommodation of students with disabilities. One important requirement of the ADA is that the student has the responsibility of the disclosing their disability to the institution’s authorities for them to benefit from the Act’s provisions. According to (Walker, 2006), institutions of higher education are prohibited from enquiring of the disability status of the student by the ADA. On the other hand, once a student has disclosed their disability status, the institution is supposed to handle the student as per ADA’s provision. According to Title II and III of the ADA, disabled persons are not supposed to be denied access to facilities which are accessible to the public including private facilities (Hernandez, Keys & Balcazar, 2004). As such public and private learning institutions are supposed to provide accommodation for disabled students indiscriminately. While Title II prohibits discrimination of the disable from accessing public entities, Title III of the same Act adds that disabled persons should not be denied accommodation in private places so long as those entities cab be accessed by the public. Specifically, Title III states that â€Å"no individual shall be discriminated against on the basis of disability in the full and equal enjoyment of goods, services, facilities, privileges, advantages, or accommodations† (Sullivan, Lantz & Zirkel, 2000, p 261). In view of the provisions in the Americans with Disabilities Act, the disabled student is put into the mainstream higher education community. The ADA is highly hailed by the disabled postsecondary students since their concerns are highly addressed (Hernandez, Keys & Balcazar, 2004). The attitudes of the general public towards the inclusion of the concerns of the disabled as provided in Title II and III of ADA are particularly hailed. With ADA in place, postsecondary institutions of learning have been made to provide services that support the disabled students to have the best experience during their time in the institution. Bryan (2010) states that since the enactment of the ADA, postsecondary institutions have been forced to reevaluate their services so as to accommodate the disabled persons as per the requirements of ADA. Most institutions have specifically addressed changes in programs catering for individuals with learning disabilities. If a disabled person has complied with the requirements of the ADA and the institution of learning discriminates the individual, the institution can be sued by such an individual. It is to be noted that ADA is a reinforcement of Section 504 as explored below.